We Need to Understand Why Bees Are Dying
science·@agmoore·
0.000 HBDWe Need to Understand Why Bees Are Dying
Why are bees disappearing? This is a question that needs an answer because bees are the most [important pollinators](https://phys.org/news/2018-01-worldwide-importance-honey-bees-natural.html) on earth. In order to find the answer to our question, we should know a little bit about bees. <center>[](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zucchini-flower-bee.jpg)</center> ___ ___ ***Bee Society*** ____ Bees live in a highly structured society, with a clear division of labor. At the top of the labor pyramid is the queen, the single most powerful member of the hive, and she is accorded the respect due such a high status. Below the queen are drones and worker bees. Worker bees are by far the most numerous members of a bee colony. The activity of all members of a bee colony are ultimately directed toward one goal: Insure the health and survival of the next generation. Every member of the hive team--queen, worker, and drone--is necessary to achieve this goal. ___ [](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CBP_Agriculture_Specialists_Intercept_Cache_of_Undeclared_Queen_and_Worker_Honey_Bees_at_Laredo_Port_of_Entry_(17397434196).jpg) >*Image of a queen and worker bee, showing relative size. This picture was taken by a U.S. Border Patrol Agent. As a work of a government employee, the photo is in the public domain*. ___ ___ ***The Queen*** ___ The queen's most essential [functions](https://agdev.anr.udel.edu/maarec/honey-bee-biology/the-colony-and-its-organization/) are to reproduce (that is, lay eggs) and to communicate with other members of the hive through the release of chemicals (the [queen pheromone.](https://wildflowermeadows.com/2017/08/queen-pheromone/)) The queen unites the hive with this chemical communication. In the course of a lifetime--between three to five years--a successful queen may produce [500,000 eggs](https://americanbeejournal.com/the-members-of-a-honey-bee-colony/). There are some sources that put this number as high as a million. About five days after emerging from a pupa, [a new queen will leave the nest](http://honeylove.org/forums/topic/queen-mating-flights-how-many-how-long-how-to-gauge-sufficiency/) to mate. She may make this flight twice in her lifetime, rarely more than that because every time she leaves the nest she places herself at risk. During the flight she will encounter thousands of drones who are swarming in anticipation of an encounter with a queen. It is important that the queen mate with drones from other hives because this insures genetic diversity and helps to provide immunity to pathogens. The queen may mate with ten or 20 drones on each flight. She collects their sperm and stores it in a pouch, which is called the [spermatheca.](http://honeybee.drawwing.org/book/spermatheca) When a queen can no longer produce eggs or cannot produce sufficient pheromone to hold the hive together, she is replaced. The process of replacement can be rather gruesome: The workers gather round and [smother her]( https://www.perfectbee.com/learn-about-bees/the-science-of-bees/honey-bees-reproduce/) to death. This execution of the queen provides an opportunity for another bee to advance. A worker may be designated as the new queen. If a new queen is not established quickly, the hive will fail. ___ ___ ***A Swarm*** ___ [](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HoneyBeeSwarm3.jpg) ___ >*When a queen dies, or becomes too weak to produce eggs, worker bees take charge of the situation. Ordinarily, a healthy queen releases a chemical that prevents worker bees (who are also female) from producing eggs. When this chemical is no longer present, workers may start to produce eggs*. >*Other worker bees prepare cells for a new queen to grow. They nurture the chosen eggs with royal jelly through a rapid period of development. Several potential new queens may emerge--these may fight, to the death, for primacy in the hive*. >*A swarm around the hive of a dead queen likely indicates that workers are prepared to take a new queen and perhaps fly off to establish a new nest with her*. ___ ___ ***Worker Bees*** ___ [](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Honeybees-27527-1.jpg) >*Honeybee workers fan the entrance to the hive. Picture credit: Ken Thomas, released into the [public domain.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Honeybees-27527-1.jpg)* >*Of the many tasks worker bees carry out, [one is to cool the nest.](https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6069-honeybees-genes-key-to-hive-air-conditioning/) Here they are fanning the entrance to the hive. Sometimes, drones may help with this chore. In order for the brood to develop properly, the nest temperature must be maintained within a certain range. If temperatures fall below that range, workers gather around the brood to keep the developing bees warm*. ___ [Worker bees](https://www.perfectbee.com/learn-about-bees/the-life-of-bees/the-role-of-the-worker-bee/) pretty much live up to their name. They prepare the cells in which the eggs will be laid. They tailor the design of the cell to accommodate the three different types of larvae--queen, drone and worker. When the queen lays her eggs, she recognizes that the larger cells are intended for drones. As she deposits eggs in these cells, she will not fertilize them. The rest of the cells, the overwhelming majority, will be filled with fertilized eggs. Bees that emerge from these fertilized eggs will all be female. The developing bees together are called the brood. It is the workers' job to nurse the brood, to see that developing bees are in good condition, to nourish them and to keep the cells clean. Workers also feed the queen, constantly. They forage for food and bring it back to the colony. When they return, they communicate to nest mates what they discovered on their forage flight. They let the other bees know where the best pollen is and how to get there. Although bees don't talk, in the sense that humans do, they "talk" by dancing. This very elaborate ["waggle"](https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/on-exhibit-posts/decoding-the-honey-bee-s-waggle-dance/) dance is specific to each event and contains precise information. Scientists are still discovering how to interpret the bees' sophisticated system of communication. ___ [](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1911_Britannica_-_Bee_-_Apis_mellifica.png) >*The relative sizes of three adult honey bees represented: The drone is at the top, the queen in the middle and the worker bee at the bottom. From the *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 1911. Public domain. Copyright expired* ____ ___ ***Drones*** ___ Drones live for the glorious moment when they might share their genetic material with the queen. Most drones will never achieve this goal, for they must engage in fierce competition to mate with a queen. Mating occurs mid flight. [Conditions have to be perfect.](http://articles.extension.org/pages/73133/honey-bee-queens:-evaluating-the-most-important-colony-member) The queen has to be sufficiently mature, the weather hast to be fine, and a drone must manage somehow to distinguish himself in a swarm so that he can mount the queen. This is a costly prize, for in almost every instance the drone will [sacrifice his life](https://www.thoughtco.com/sexual-suicide-by-honey-bees-1968100) with the act of mating. His endophallus, the instrument through which he delivers sperm, will be torn from his body and this trauma will kill him in a very short time. Drones who don't get to mate may reside in the nest for a while, but eventually will be forced out by worker bees, because food cannot be spared to support them. After mating, the queen returns to the nest. She has enough sperm to fertilize millions of eggs. This is when the organization of the hive gets really remarkable. ____ [](https://pixabay.com/en/drone-honey-bee-male-bee-buckfast-344984/) >*A honey bee drone. Image source: [Pixabay](https://pixabay.com/en/drone-honey-bee-male-bee-buckfast-344984/)* __________ ___ ***The Brood*** ___ The brood is the center of activity in the hive. If something doesn't contribute to the survival of the brood, it is ejected from the nest. Bees go through [three stages of development](https://bees.techno-science.ca/english/bees/life-in-a-hive/stages.php) before they reach maturity: egg, larva and pupa. Egg cells, built by worker bees, are designed to accommodate different types of bees. Large cells signal to the queen that an egg will be deposited but not fertilized. These unfertilized eggs will each receive royal jelly for only the first three days as larva, and will ultimately emerge as drones (males). The rest of the cells prepared by worker bees will accommodate fertilized eggs (females). Some of these will develop into queens. Most will develop into worker bees. Nutrition essentially determines which role a female bee will play. Those destined to be queen will be fed on a rich diet of [royal jelly throughout their larval development](https://www.beeculture.com/royal-jelly-worker-bee-produced-protein-rich-mothers-milk/), and for their entire rule as queens. The drones and workers will be fed royal jelly for the first three days of life and then a mixture called [bee bread](https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/glossary/terms/bee-bread), which is comprised of pollen and nectar, or honey. At the end of the larval period, the larvae spin cocoons around themselves and become pupa, where the remainder of their development continues. Worker bees cap the cells that contain the pupa. At the end of this period, the mature bee emerges. The total [period of development varies](https://www.perfectbee.com/learn-about-bees/the-science-of-bees/honey-bee-life-cycle/) for worker, queen and drone. The shortest is queen--this may be around fourteen days. The longest is the drone--about twenty-five days. Worker bee development takes about eighteen days. ___ [](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20130522-NRCS-LSC-0226-v6.webm) >*Still frame [captured](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20130522-NRCS-LSC-0226-v6.webm) from a United States Department of Agriculture Video. The frame shows worker bees tending a brood. Public domain* ___ ___ ___ ## Why Are Bees in Trouble? ## Colony Collapse Disorder: Some Identified Causes ____ Bees are [highly intelligent](https://owlcation.com/stem/How-Smart-are-Honey-Bees) and have an exquisite social organization that has allowed them to [thrive for millions](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-beguiling-history-of-bees-excerpt/) of years. In light of the species' evolutionary success, Colony Collapse Disorder has sent scientists scrambling for answers. The most commonly offered explanation for colony collapse is assault by pathogens. But why do bees suddenly seem to have a catastrophic vulnerability to pathogens? ___ ***Intensive Agricultural Practices: Loss of Plant Diversity/ Loss of Habitat Affects Gut Biome*** ______ [Ecologists at Lancaster University in England](https://phys.org/news/2018-04-honeybees-struggling-good-bacteria.html) looked at bee bread (fed to developing larvae) in areas where traditional land use had been altered. They discovered that foraging by honey bees was affected by a lack of diversity in the surrounding environment. In an undisturbed setting, bees will collect a variety of bacteria from different plant species. This bacteria is important for the bee's gut biome--the organic factory, as it were, in which bee bread is produced. Some of these bacteria are "baked" into the bread and help to imbue larvae with immunity to a variety of pathogens. By limiting available bacteria, altered land use deprives bees of immunity that would traditionally help them fight off many pathogens. Also, without diverse bacteria in bee bread, there is a greater tendency for the bread to grow mold. ___  >*A field of maize. Picture source: [Pixabay](https://pixabay.com/en/corn-cornfield-late-summer-2735619/)* ___ ___ ***Loss of Plant Diversity Affects Bee Nutrition*** ___ Environmentalists in France looked at the effect intensive agriculture had on bee nutrition. They found that, although for most of the year there was an adequate pollen source to support a bee colony, at certain times this was not true. In this particular instance, it was discovered that during the season when maize blossomed, bees suffered nutritionally because maize does not offer good quality pollen. With a lack of plant diversity on the farm, bees experienced a nutritional deficit. Their diet during maize season, according the the authors of this study, was not adequate ["for bee development"]( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5025243/) The effect on bee nutrition of niche farming may be repeated in different environments where only poor quality pollen is seasonally available for forage. ___ ___ ***Managed Colonies*** _____ Bees are big business. Agriculture depends on what are called managed colonies to pollinate crops. Unfortunately, the very act of managing bees increases their mortality rate. The mortality within a managed colony can be increased by [stress](https://www.nature.com/articles/srep32023) and by contamination with [pathogens](https://www.ecohealthalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Smith-et-al_HoneyBee_EH-2014.pdf). Even outside the managed colony, wild bees suffer from increased mortality because of the existence of managed colonies in the area. This was demonstrated in a study published in *Plos One* (2017), [*Do managed bees have negative effects on wild bees?: A systematic review of the literature*.](http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0189268)) The paper asserts that managed colonies have a strong, though variable effect on wild bees. The most dramatic harm comes from contamination with pathogens introduced by the managed colonies. [](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JansevCebelnjak1.jpg) ___ >*Managed bees, in Slovenia. Picture credit: [Janev Cebelnjak,](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JansevCebelnjak1.jpg) who has released the photo into the public domain.* ___ ***Chemicals*** ___ Although representatives of the [chemical industry,](https://media.bayer.com/baynews/baynews.nsf/id/Neonicotinoid-ban-a-sad-day-for-farmers-and-a-bad-deal-for-Europe) and some [farmers](http://www.deltafarmpress.com/management/what-would-ban-neonicotinoids-mean) downplay the role of chemicals in colony collapse, research offers evidence that the use of various chemicals in agriculture has been associated with increased bee mortality. Cited below are several studies, carried out in different environments, that demonstrate a relationship between chemically (pesticides, herbicides and/or fungicides) treated agricultural products and mortality, or sub-lethal harm, in bees. The first study deals with neonicotinoids. ___ ***Effect of Neonicotinoids on the Production of Royal Jelly*** _______ As as been discussed earlier in this blog, royal jelly is essential in the diet of developing larvae and in the maintenance of the queen. The jelly is produced in a worker bee's hypopharyngeal gland, HPG. Researchers from Auburn University (USA) tried to ascertain if exposure to neonicotinoids affects a bee's HPG, and therefore its ability to produce royal jelly. For their study, the scientists designed an [experiment](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0005772X.2018.1450208) in which one group of bee's was fed a mixture that contained amounts of neonicotinoids approximately equal to what they might receive in forage. Another group of bees was fed the same diet, but without the neonicotinoids. At the end of the experiment, the bees fed the chemical had smaller HPGs. Surprisingly, even nest mates of the neonicotinoid-nourished bees (who had not been fed the chemical), also had smaller HPGs. The incidental exposure was sufficient to bring about this effect. There has been other [research](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4814072/) that demonstrates bee strength is related to the size and protein content of the HPG. Therefore, smaller HPGs, caused by exposure to neonicotinoids, has a detrimental effect on the health of a bee colony ___ ***Pesticide-Treated Almonds*** ___ In an article entitled [*Effects of Pesticides Applied During Almond Bloom on Post Emergence Mortality Rate of Honey Bees*,](https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/handle/1811/84892) entomologists from Ohio State University report that application of a commonly used fungicide/pesticide mixture on almond blossoms dramatically increased mortality in bees. In eight separate trials, bee larvae in the study were fed chemicals commonly used in the production of almonds. Mortality rates among the exposed bees reached 50%. Not only do the results of the study have widespread implications for bee health, but the information is also critically important for almond farmers. Bees are essential for pollination of commercially grown almonds. ___ [](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Almondtrees.jpg) >*Blossoming almond trees in California, 2009. [Photo credit Bn100,](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Almondtrees.jpg) who has released the image into the public domain*. ___ ***Mechanical Threshing Leads to Aerosolization and Widespread Dispersal of Chemically Treated Corn*** __ In an article entitled [*Planting of neonicotinoid-coated corn raises honey bee mortality and sets back colony development*,](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28828265) biologists from the University of Quebec report increased mortality for bees raised in corn-producing areas as opposed to those raised in areas free of corn plants. The biologists found that corn-producing areas had a bee mortality rate 3.5 times higher than bees in corn-free areas. [Another article](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0005772X.2018.1450208) on neonicotinoid use in corn cultivation explains how mechanical sowing leads to aerosolization of contaminated particles. Pollen is diffusely coated with these particles. The increased bee mortality correlated with corn-planting seasons. ___ [](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Threshing_Machine_c1942_CaseCorp.jpg) >*Threshing Machine, made by the Case Corporation, 1942. Image credit: [Steve Strummer,](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Threshing_Machine_c1942_CaseCorp.jpg) who has released the photo into the public domain*. ___ ***Exposure to Widely-Used Herbicide Impedes Bee Navigation*** ___ In 2015 the *Journal of Experimental Biology* published a [study](http://jeb.biologists.org/content/218/17/2799.long) that demonstrated exposure to [glyphosate](http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/dienochlor-glyphosate/glyphosate-ext.html) interfered with a bee's ability to navigate. What this means is, a foraging bee will have greater difficulty returning to its nest if it has been exposed to glyphosate. Earlier in this blog, the duties of a worker bee were described. Worker bees provide food for the nest. They forage, discover food sources and not only return with food, but also communicate, through the waggle dance, where they have been and what they have found. Therefore, the efficiency and accuracy of a bee's navigation directly affects the well-being of a colony. Glyphosate is the [most widely used](http://www.newsweek.com/glyphosate-now-most-used-agricultural-chemical-ever-422419) agricultural chemical in the world. ___ ___ [](https://pixabay.com/en/bee-honey-bee-sloes-insect-blossom-1333353/) A foraging honey bee. Image source: [Pixabay](https://pixabay.com/en/bee-honey-bee-sloes-insect-blossom-1333353/) ___ ___ The direct and dramatic role of pathogens in colony collapse has not been discussed here in any detail. An epidemic of pathogens is literally taking down colonies. There is space in another blog to discuss these different pathogens and their role in Colony Collapse Disorder. What is certain, and is addressed here, is the role that human activity plays in bee vulnerability to pathogens. Weakened immune systems and increased exposure greatly magnify the toll pathogens take on bee colonies. Bees have been friends of the earth for millions of years--friends to plants and animals alike. Humans must find a way to coexist with these friends in a way that benefits both species. --- --- Sources for this article: https://phys.org/news/2018-01-worldwide-importance-honey-bees-natural.html https://agdev.anr.udel.edu/maarec/honey-bee-biology/the-colony-and-its-organization/ https://wildflowermeadows.com/2017/08/queen-pheromone/ https://americanbeejournal.com/the-members-of-a-honey-bee-colony/ http://honeylove.org/forums/topic/queen-mating-flights-how-many-how-long-how-to-gauge-sufficiency/ http://honeybee.drawwing.org/book/spermatheca https://www.perfectbee.com/learn-about-bees/the-science-of-bees/honey-bees-reproduce/ https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6069-honeybees-genes-key-to-hive-air-conditioning/ https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/on-exhibit-posts/decoding-the-honey-bee-s-waggle-dance/ https://www.perfectbee.com/learn-about-bees/the-life-of-bees/the-role-of-the-worker-bee/ https://www.thoughtco.com/sexual-suicide-by-honey-bees-1968100 https://www.beeculture.com/royal-jelly-worker-bee-produced-protein-rich-mothers-milk/ https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/glossary/terms/bee-bread https://www.perfectbee.com/learn-about-bees/the-science-of-bees/honey-bee-life-cycle/ https://owlcation.com/stem/How-Smart-are-Honey-Bees https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-beguiling-history-of-bees-excerpt/ https://phys.org/news/2018-04-honeybees-struggling-good-bacteria.html https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5025243/ https://www.nature.com/articles/srep32023 https://www.ecohealthalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Smith-et-al_HoneyBee_EH-2014.pdf http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0189268 https://media.bayer.com/baynews/baynews.nsf/id/Neonicotinoid-ban-a-sad-day-for-farmers-and-a-bad-deal-for-Europe http://www.deltafarmpress.com/management/what-would-ban-neonicotinoids-mean https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0005772X.2018.1450208 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4814072/ https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/handle/1811/84892 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28828265 http://jeb.biologists.org/content/218/17/2799.long http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/dienochlor-glyphosate/glyphosate-ext.html http://www.newsweek.com/glyphosate-now-most-used-agricultural-chemical-ever-422419 https://bees.techno-science.ca/english/bees/life-in-a-hive/stages.php http://articles.extension.org/pages/73133/honey-bee-queens:-evaluating-the-most-important-colony-member ___
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